An Incomplete History of the Art of Funerary Violin

Music technology is the study or the use of any device, mechanism, machine or tool by a musician or composer to make or perform music; to compose, notate, play back or tape songs or pieces; or to analyze or edit music.

History [edit]

The earliest known applications of technology to music was prehistoric peoples' utilize of a tool to paw-drill holes in bones to brand simple flutes.^[one]

Ancient Egyptians developed stringed instruments, such equally harps, lyres and lutes, which required making thin strings and some blazon of peg organization for adjusting the pitch of the strings. Ancient Egyptians too used wind instruments such as double clarinets and percussion instruments such as cymbals.

In Ancient Greece, instruments included the double-reed aulos and the lyre.

Numerous instruments are referred to in the Bible, including the horn, pipe, lyre, harp, and bagpipe. During Biblical times, the cornet, flute, horn, organ, pipe, and trumpet were too used.

During the Middle Ages, music notation was used to create a written tape of the notes of plainchant melodies.

During the Renaissance music era (c. 1400-1600), the printing press was invented, allowing for canvas music to be mass-produced (previously having been mitt-copied). This helped to spread musical styles more than quickly and across a larger area.

During the Baroque era (c. 1600–1750), technologies for keyboard instruments developed, which led to improvements in the designs of pipe organs and harpsichords, and the evolution of a new keyboard musical instrument in approximately 1700, the pianoforte.

In the Classical era, Beethoven added new instruments to the orchestra such every bit the piccolo, contrabassoon, trombones, and untuned percussion in his Ninth Symphony.

During the Romantic music era (c. 1810–1900), one of the key means that new compositions became known to the public was by the sales of sheet music, which amateur music lovers would perform at dwelling on their pianoforte or other instruments. In the 19th century, new instruments such as saxophones, euphoniums, Wagner tubas, and cornets were added to the orchestra.

Effectually the turn of the 20th century, with the invention and popularization of the gramophone tape (commercialized in 1892), and radio broadcasting (starting on a commercial basis ca. 1919-1920), there was a vast increase in music listening, and information technology was easier to distribute music to a wider public.^[1]

The development of sound recording had a major influence on the evolution of popular music genres, considering it enabled recordings of songs and bands to be widely distributed. The invention of sound recording also gave ascension to a new sub genre of classical music: the Musique concrete style of electronic composition.

The invention of multitrack recording enabled pop bands to overdub many layers of instrument tracks and vocals, creating new sounds that would not exist possible in a alive functioning.

In the early on 20th century, electrical technologies such as electromagnetic pickups, amplifiers and loudspeakers were used to develop new electric instruments such as the electric piano (1929), electric guitar (1931), electro-mechanical organ (1934) and electrical bass (1935). The 20th-century orchestra gained new instruments and new sounds. Some orchestra pieces used the electrical guitar, electrical bass or the Theremin.

The invention of the miniature transistor in 1947 enabled the creation of a new generation of synthesizers, which were used commencement in pop music in the 1960s. Unlike prior keyboard instrument technologies, synthesizer keyboards do non have strings, pipes, or metal tines. A synthesizer keyboard creates musical sounds using electronic circuitry, or, later on, figurer fries and software. Synthesizers became popular in the mass market in the early 1980s.

With the development of powerful microchips, a number of new electronic or digital music technologies were introduced in the 1980s and subsequent decades, including drum machines and music sequencers. Electronic and digital music technologies are any device, such every bit a computer, an electronic effects unit or software, that is used by a musician or composer to assistance make or perform music.^[two] The term usually refers to the use of electronic devices, reckoner hardware and computer software that is used in the operation, playback, recording, limerick, sound recording and reproduction, mixing, assay and editing of music.

Mechanical technologies [edit]

Prehistoric eras [edit]

A os flute which is over 41,000 years quondam.

Findings from paleolithic archæology sites propose that prehistoric people used carving and piercing tools to create instruments. Archeologists have found Paleolithic flutes carved from bones in which lateral holes have been pierced. The Divje Babe flute, carved from a cavern conduct femur, is thought to exist at least xl,000 years old. Instruments such as the vii-holed flute and diverse types of stringed instruments, such as the Ravanahatha, have been recovered from the Indus Valley Civilisation archaeological sites.^[three] India has one of the oldest musical traditions in the world—references to Indian classical music (marga) are found in the Vedas, aboriginal scriptures of the Hindu tradition.^[iv] The earliest and largest collection of prehistoric musical instruments was found in China and dates back to between 7000 and 6600 BC.^[5]

Ancient Egypt [edit]

In prehistoric Egypt, music and chanting were normally used in magic and rituals, and small shells were used as whistles.^{[half-dozen] : 26–30} Evidence of Egyptian musical instruments dates to the Predynastic flow, when funerary chants played an important role in Egyptian organized religion and were accompanied by clappers and possibly the flute. The most reliable prove of instrument technologies dates from the Old Kingdom, when technologies for amalgam harps, flutes and double clarinets were developed.^[7] Percussion instruments, lyres and lutes were used by the Middle Kingdom. Metal cymbals were used by ancient Egyptians.^[8] In the early on 21st century, interest in the music of the pharaonic menstruation began to grow, inspired by the enquiry of such foreign-born musicologists as Hans Hickmann. By the early on 21st century, Egyptian musicians and musicologists led by the musicology professor Khairy El-Malt at Helwan University in Cairo had begun to reconstruct musical instruments of Ancient Egypt, a projection that is ongoing.^[9]

Indus Valley [edit]

The Indus Valley civilization has sculptures that prove sometime musical instruments, similar the seven-holed flute. Various types of stringed instruments and drums accept been recovered from Harappa and Mohenjo Daro by excavations carried out by Sir Mortimer Wheeler.^[10]

References in the Bible [edit]

According to the Scriptures, Jubal was the father of harpists and organists (Gen. 4:20–21). The harp was among the chief instruments and the favorite of David, and it is referred to more than than 50 times in the Bible. It was used at both blithesome and mournful ceremonies, and its use was "raised to its highest perfection under David" (1 Sam. sixteen:23). Lockyer adds that "It was the sweet music of the harp that often dispossessed Saul of his melancholy (1 Sam. 16:14–23; xviii:10–11).^{[11] : 46} When the Jews were captive in Babylon they hung their harps upwardly and refused to use them while in exile, earlier being part of the instruments used in the Temple (one Kgs. 10:12). Some other stringed musical instrument of the harp form, and one also used by the ancient Greeks, was the lyre. A like musical instrument was the lute, which had a large pear-shaped torso, long cervix, and fretted fingerboard with caput screws for tuning. Coins displaying musical instruments, the Bar Kochba Defection coinage, were issued by the Jews during the Second Jewish Revolt confronting the Roman Empire of 132–135 AD. In addition to those, at that place was the psaltery, another stringed instrument which is referred to almost thirty times in Scripture. According to Josephus, it had twelve strings and was played with a quill, not with the manus. Another writer suggested that information technology was similar a guitar, but with a apartment triangular form and strung from side to side.^{[xi] : 49}

Among the air current instruments used in the biblical period were the cornet, flute, horn, organ, pipe, and trumpet.^{[xi] : 50} There were also silver trumpets and the double oboe. Werner concludes that from the measurements taken of the trumpets on the Curvation of Titus in Rome and from coins, that "the trumpets were very loftier pitched with thin trunk and shrill sound." He adds that in War of the Sons of Light Against the Sons of Darkness, a transmission for armed services organization and strategy discovered amongst the Dead Sea Scrolls, these trumpets "announced conspicuously capable of regulating their pitch pretty accurately, as they are supposed to blow rather complicated signals in unison."^[12] Whitcomb writes that the pair of silver trumpets were fashioned co-ordinate to Mosaic law and were probably among the trophies which the Emperor Titus brought to Rome when he conquered Jerusalem. She adds that on the Arch raised to the victorious Titus, "there is a sculptured relief of these trumpets, showing their aboriginal form. (see photo)^[13]

The flute was commonly used for festal and mourning occasions, according to Whitcomb. "Even the poorest Hebrew was obliged to utilize ii flute-players to perform at his wife's funeral."^[13] The shofar (the horn of a ram) is still used for special liturgical purposes such as the Jewish New year's day services in orthodox communities. As such, it is not considered a musical instrument but an instrument of theological symbolism which has been intentionally kept to its primitive grapheme. In ancient times it was used for alarm of danger, to announce the new moon or offset of Sabbath, or to announce the death of a notable. "In its strictly ritual usage it carried the cries of the multitude to God," writes Werner.^[14]

Amongst the percussion instruments were bells, cymbals, sistrum, tabret, hand drums, and tambourines. The tabret, or timbrel, was a small-scale hand-pulsate used for festive occasions, and was considered a woman's instrument. In modern times it was often used by the Conservancy Ground forces. According to the Bible, when the children of Israel came out of Arab republic of egypt and crossed the Red Body of water, "Miriam took a timbrel in her easily; and all the women went out subsequently her with timbrels and with trip the light fantastic." ^[11]

Ancient Greece [edit]

The hydraulis or "water organ". Note the curved trumpet, called the bukanē by the Greeks and, later, cornu by the Romans.

In Aboriginal Greece, instruments in all music can exist divided into three categories,^{[15] [ incomplete short citation ]} based on how sound is produced: cord, air current, and percussion. The following were among the instruments used in the music of ancient Greece:

• the lyre: a strummed and occasionally plucked cord instrument, essentially a hand-held zither congenital on a tortoise-shell frame, generally with seven or more strings tuned to the notes of ane of the modes. The lyre was used to accompany others or fifty-fifty oneself for recitation and song.
• the kithara, also a strummed string instrument, more complicated than the lyre. It had a box-type frame with strings stretched from the cross-bar at the top to the sounding box at the lesser; it was held upright and played with a plectrum. The strings were tunable by adjusting wooden wedges along the cross-bar.
• the aulos, usually double, consisting of 2 double-reed (like an oboe) pipes, not joined just generally played with a rima oris-band to hold both pipes steadily between the player'south lips. Modernistic reconstructions indicate that they produced a low, clarinet-like audio. At that place is some confusion about the exact nature of the instrument; alternate descriptions bespeak single-reeds instead of double reeds.
• the Pan pipes, also known every bit panflute and syrinx (Greek συριγξ), (so-called for the nymph who was changed into a reed in order to hide from Pan) is an ancient musical instrument based on the principle of the stopped pipage, consisting of a series of such pipes of gradually increasing length, tuned (past cutting) to a desired scale. Sound is produced by blowing across the height of the open piping (like blowing beyond a bottle tiptop).
• the hydraulis, a keyboard instrument, the forerunner of the modernistic organ. As the proper noun indicates, the instrument used water to supply a constant flow of pressure to the pipes. Two detailed descriptions have survived: that of Vitruvius ^[16] and Heron of Alexandria.^[17] These descriptions deal primarily with the keyboard mechanism and with the device past which the musical instrument was supplied with air. A well-preserved model in pottery was found at Carthage in 1885. Essentially, the air to the pipes that produce the sound comes from a wind-chest connected by a pipe to a dome; air is pumped in to compress water, and the water rises in the dome, compressing the air, and causing a steady supply of air to the pipes.^{[18] [ incomplete short citation ]}

In the Aeneid, Virgil makes numerous references to the trumpet. The lyre, kithara, aulos, hydraulis (water organ) and trumpet all establish their way into the music of ancient Rome.

Roman Empire [edit]

Musicians in a detail from the Zliten mosaic (2nd century Advertising), originally shown equally accompanying gladiator gainsay and wild-fauna events in the arena: from left, the tuba, hydraulis (water piping organ), and two cornua

The Romans may accept borrowed the Greek method^[19] of 'enchiriadic annotation' to record their music, if they used whatever note at all. Four letters (in English note 'A', 'One thousand', 'F' and 'C') indicated a series of four succeeding tones. Rhythm signs, written higher up the messages, indicated the duration of each annotation. Roman fine art depicts various woodwinds, "brass", percussion and stringed instruments.^[20] Roman-style instruments are found in parts of the Empire where they did not originate, and betoken that music was among the aspects of Roman culture that spread throughout the provinces.

Roman instruments include:

• The Roman tuba was a long, directly bronze trumpet with a detachable, conical mouthpiece. Extant examples are near ane.3 metres long, and have a cylindrical bore from the mouthpiece to the point where the bell flares abruptly,^{[21] [ incomplete short citation ]} similar to the modern straight trumpet seen in presentations of 'period music'. Since at that place were no valves, the tuba was capable merely of a single overtone series.^{[22] [ incomplete brusk citation ]} In the war machine, it was used for "bugle calls". The tuba is also depicted in art such as mosaics accompanying games (ludi) and spectacle events.
• The cornu (Latin "horn") was a long tubular metal current of air instrument that curved around the musician's trunk, shaped rather similar an uppercase G. It had a conical bore (again like a French horn) and a conical mouthpiece. Information technology may be hard to distinguish from the buccina. The cornu was used for military signals and on parade.^[23] The cornicen was a military signal officer who translated orders into calls. Like the tuba, the cornu also appears as accompaniment for public events and spectacle entertainments.
• The tibia (Greek aulos – αὐλός), usually double, had two double-reed (equally in a modern oboe) pipes, not joined merely generally played with a mouth-band capistrum to concord both pipes steadily between the actor's lips.^{[24] [ incomplete short citation ]}
• The askaules — a bagpipe.
• Versions of the modernistic flute and panpipes.
• The lyre, borrowed from the Greeks, was non a harp, only instead had a sounding torso of wood or a tortoise shell covered with skin, and arms of animal horn or wood, with strings stretched from a cross bar to the sounding body.^{[25] [ incomplete short citation ]}
• The cithara was the premier musical musical instrument of ancient Rome and was played both in popular and elevated forms of music. Larger and heavier than a lyre, the cithara was a loud, sweet and piercing musical instrument with precision tuning power.
• The lute (pandura or monochord) was known by several names among the Greeks and Romans. In construction, the lute differs from the lyre in having fewer strings stretched over a solid neck or fret-board, on which the strings can exist stopped to produce graduated notes. Each lute string is thereby capable of producing a greater range of notes than a lyre string.^{[26] [ incomplete short citation ]} Although long-necked lutes are depicted in art from Mesopotamia every bit early on as 2340–2198 BC, and also occur in Egyptian iconography, the lute in the Greco-Roman world was far less common than the lyre and cithara. The lute of the medieval West is thought to owe more to the Arab oud, from which its name derives (al ʿūd).^{[27] [ incomplete short citation ]}
• The hydraulic pipe organ (hydraulis), which worked by water pressure level, was "one of the most pregnant technical and musical achievements of artifact".^[28] Substantially, the air to the pipes that produce the audio comes from a mechanism of a current of air-chest continued by a pipage to a dome; air is pumped in to compress water, and the water rises in the dome, compressing the air and causing a steady supply to attain the pipes^{[29] [ incomplete short commendation ]} (also come across Pipage organ#History). The hydraulis accompanied gladiator contests and events in the arena, likewise every bit phase performances.
• Variations of a hinged wooden or metallic device, called a scabellum used to shell time. Also, there were various rattles, bells and tambourines.
• Drum and percussion instruments like timpani and castanets, the Egyptian sistrum, and brazen pans, served various musical and other purposes in ancient Rome, including backgrounds for rhythmic trip the light fantastic toe, celebratory rites like those of the Bacchantes and military uses.
• The sistrum was a rattle consisting of rings strung across the cantankerous-bars of a metal frame, which was often used for ritual purposes.
• Cymbala (Lat. plural of cymbalum, from the Greek kymbalon) were pocket-sized cymbals: metal discs with concave centres and turned rims, used in pairs which were clashed together.

Islamic world [edit]

A number of musical instruments later used in medieval European music were influenced by Arabic musical instruments, including the rebec (an ancestor of the violin) from the rebab and the naker from naqareh.^[30] Many European instruments take roots in earlier Eastern instruments that were adopted from the Islamic world.^[31] The Arabic rabāb, as well known as the spiked fiddle, is the primeval known bowed cord instrument and the antecedent of all European bowed instruments, including the rebec, the Byzantine lyra, and the violin.^{[32] [33]}

The plucked and bowed versions of the rebab existed alongside each other.^[34] The bowed instruments became the rebec or rabel and the plucked instruments became the gittern. Brusque Sachs linked this instrument with the mandola, the kopuz and the gambus, and named the bowed version rabâb.^[34]

The Standard arabic oud in Islamic music was the direct ancestor of the European lute.^[35] The oud is too cited as a precursor to the modernistic guitar.^[36] The guitar has roots in the four-string oud, brought to Iberia past the Moors in the 8th century.^[37] A directly ancestor of the modern guitar is the guitarra morisca (Moorish guitar), which was in use in Spain by 1200. Past the 14th century, it was only referred to equally a guitar.^[38]

The origin of automatic musical instruments dates back to the 9th century, when the Persian Banū Mūsā brothers invented a hydropowered organ using exchangeable cylinders with pins,^[39] and also an automated flute playing motorcar using steam power.^{[40] [41]} These were the earliest automatic mechanical musical instruments.^[39] The Banu Musa brothers' automated flute player was the first programmable musical device, the commencement music sequencer,^[42] and the offset instance of repetitive music applied science, powered by hydraulics.^[43]

In 1206, the Arab engineer Al-Jazari invented a programmable humanoid automata band.^[44] According to Charles B. Fowler, the automata were a "robot band" which performed "more than l facial and torso deportment during each musical pick."^[45] It was as well the first programmable drum machine. Amidst the four automaton musicians, two were drummers. It was a drum automobile where pegs (cams) bumped into little levers that operated the percussion. The drummers could be made to play unlike rhythms and different drum patterns if the pegs were moved around.^[46]

Middle Ages [edit]

During the medieval music era (476 to 1400) the plainchant tunes used for religious songs were primarily monophonic (a single line, unaccompanied tune). In the early centuries of the medieval era, these chants were taught and spread by oral tradition ("past ear"). The earliest Medieval music did not have any kind of notational system for writing downward melodies. As Rome tried to standardize the diverse chants beyond vast distances of its empire, a form of music notation was needed to write downwardly the melodies. Various signs written in a higher place the chant texts, called neumes were introduced. By the ninth century, information technology was firmly established equally the chief method of musical note. The next development in musical notation was "heighted neumes", in which neumes were carefully placed at different heights in relation to each other. This allowed the neumes to give a rough indication of the size of a given interval besides equally the management.

This quickly led to one or ii lines, each representing a item note, being placed on the music with all of the neumes relating back to them. The line or lines acted every bit a reference indicate to assist the singer gauge which notes were higher or lower. At first, these lines had no particular pregnant and instead had a letter placed at the beginning indicating which note was represented. All the same, the lines indicating middle C and the F a 5th below slowly became nearly common. The completion of the 4-line staff is ordinarily credited to Guido d' Arezzo (c. thou-1050), one of the most important musical theorists of the Heart Ages. The neumatic notational organisation, even in its fully developed state, did not clearly ascertain any kind of rhythm for the singing of notes or playing of melodies. The development of music notation fabricated it faster and easier to teach melodies to new people, and facilitated the spread of music over long geographic distances.

Instruments used to perform medieval music include before, less mechanically sophisticated versions of a number of instruments that continue to be used in the 2010s. Medieval instruments include the flute, which was made of woods and could be made as a side-blown or cease-blown instrument (it lacked the complex metal keys and closed pads of 2010s-era metallic flutes); the wooden recorder and the related musical instrument called the gemshorn; and the pan flute (a group of air columns attached together). Medieval music used many plucked string instruments similar the lute, mandore, gittern and psaltery. The dulcimers, like in structure to the psaltery and zither, were originally plucked, merely became struck by hammers in the 14th century after the arrival of new technology that fabricated metal strings possible.

Bowed strings were used also. The bowed lyra of the Byzantine Empire was the first recorded European bowed cord musical instrument. The Persian geographer Ibn Khurradadhbih of the 9th century (d. 911) cited the Byzantine lyra as a bowed musical instrument equivalent to the Arab rabāb and typical instrument of the Byzantines along with the urghun (organ), shilyani (probably a type of harp or lyre) and the salandj (probably a bagpipe).^[48] The hurdy-gurdy was a mechanical violin using a rosined wooden wheel fastened to a crank to "bow" its strings. Instruments without sound boxes like the jaw harp were as well pop in the fourth dimension. Early versions of the organ, fiddle (or vielle), and trombone (called the sackbut) existed in the medieval era.

Renaissance [edit]

The Renaissance music era (c. 1400 to 1600) saw the development of many new technologies that affected the performance and distribution of songs and musical pieces. Around 1450, the press press was invented, which made printed sheet music much less expensive and easier to mass-produce (prior to the invention of the printing press, all notated music was laboriously hand-copied). The increased availability of printed sheet music helped to spread musical styles more than quickly and across a larger geographic surface area.

Many instruments originated during the Renaissance; others were variations of, or improvements upon, instruments that had existed previously in the medieval era. Brass instruments in the Renaissance were traditionally played past professionals. Some of the more mutual brass instruments that were played included:

• Slide trumpet: Similar to the trombone of today except that instead of a section of the body sliding, only a small part of the body almost the mouthpiece and the mouthpiece itself is stationary.
• Cornett: Made of wood and was played like the recorder, but diddled similar a trumpet.
• Trumpet: Early trumpets from the Renaissance era had no valves, and were limited to the tones present in the overtone serial. They were likewise made in different sizes.
• Sackbut: A different name for the trombone, which replaced the slide trumpet by the eye of the 15th century

Stringed instruments included:

• Viol: This musical instrument, developed in the 15th century, commonly has six strings. Information technology was usually played with a bow.
• Lyre: Its construction is similar to a minor harp, although instead of being plucked, it is strummed with a plectrum. Its strings varied in quantity from 4, 7, and ten, depending on the era. It was played with the correct hand, while the left hand silenced the notes that were non desired. Newer lyres were modified to be played with a bow.
• Hurdy-gurdy: (Also known as the wheel fiddle), in which the strings are sounded by a wheel which the strings pass over. Its functionality can be compared to that of a mechanical violin, in that its bow (wheel) is turned by a crank. Its distinctive sound is mainly because of its "drone strings" which provide a abiding pitch similar in their sound to that of bagpipes.
• Gittern and mandore: these instruments were used throughout Europe. Forerunners of modern instruments including the mandolin and audio-visual guitar.

Percussion instruments included:

• Tambourine: The tambourine is a frame pulsate equipped with jingles that produce a sound when the drum is struck.
• Jew'south harp: An instrument that produces sound using shapes of the rima oris and attempting to pronounce different vowels with ones mouth.

Woodwind instruments included:

• Shawm: A typical shawm is keyless and is almost a pes long with vii finger holes and a pollex hole. The pipes were also most unremarkably fabricated of wood and many of them had carvings and decorations on them. It was the about popular double reed instrument of the Renaissance period; it was usually used in the streets with drums and trumpets considering of its brilliant, piercing, and often deafening sound. To play the shawm a person puts the entire reed in their mouth, puffs out their cheeks, and blows into the piping whilst breathing through their olfactory organ.

• Reed pipe: Made from a single short length of pikestaff with a mouthpiece, four or 5 finger holes, and reed fashioned from it. The reed is made by cut out a pocket-size tongue, but leaving the base of operations attached. It is the predecessor of the saxophone and the clarinet.
• Hornpipe: Same as reed pipage but with a bong at the finish.
• Bagpipe/Bladderpipe: It used a handbag made out of sheep or caprine animal pare that would provide air pressure for a pipage. When its histrion takes a breath, the actor only needs to squeeze the bag tucked underneath their arm to go on the tone. The mouth pipage has a simple round slice of leather hinged on to the handbag stop of the pipage and acts similar a not-render valve. The reed is located within the long metal mouthpiece, known as a bocal.
• Panpipe: Designed to take xvi wooden tubes with a stopper at one end and open up on the other. Each tube is a unlike size (thereby producing a different tone), giving it a range of an octave and a half. The thespian can then place their lips against the desired tube and accident across information technology.
• Transverse flute: The transverse flute is similar to the modern flute with a oral fissure hole near the stoppered end and finger holes along the body. The player blows in the side and holds the flute to the right side.
• Recorder: It uses a whistle mouth piece, which is a bill shaped oral cavity piece, every bit its main source of audio production. It is usually made with seven finger holes and a thumb hole.

Baroque [edit]

During the Baroque era of music (ca. 1600-1750), technologies for keyboard instruments developed, which led to improvements in the designs of pipage organs and harpsichords, and to the development of the outset pianos. During the Baroque period, organ builders developed new types of pipes and reeds that created new tonal colors. Organ builders fashioned new stops that imitated various instruments, such as the viola da gamba. The Baroque period is often thought of as organ building's "golden age," as virtually every important refinement to the instrument was brought to a superlative. Builders such as Arp Schnitger, Jasper Johannsen, Zacharias Hildebrandt and Gottfried Silbermann synthetic instruments that displayed both exquisite craftsmanship and cute audio. These organs featured well-balanced mechanical key deportment, giving the organist precise control over the pipe speech. Schnitger'southward organs featured especially distinctive reed timbres and large Pedal and Rückpositiv divisions.

Harpsichord builders in the Southern Netherlands congenital instruments with two keyboards which could exist used for transposition. These Flemish instruments served as the model for Baroque-era harpsichord construction in other nations. In France, the double keyboards were adapted to command dissimilar choirs of strings, making a more musically flexible instrument (e.thou., the upper transmission could exist set to a quiet lute end, while the lower transmission could be set to a stop with multiple string choirs, for a louder audio). Instruments from the tiptop of the French tradition, past makers such as the Blanchet family and Pascal Taskin, are among the most widely admired of all harpsichords, and are frequently used every bit models for the structure of modern instruments. In England, the Kirkman and Shudi firms produced sophisticated harpsichords of great power and sonority. High german builders extended the sound repertoire of the instrument by adding 16 foot choirs, adding to the lower register and two foot choirs, which added to the upper register.

The piano was invented during the Baroque era by the proficient harpsichord maker Bartolomeo Cristofori (1655–1731) of Padua, Italy, who was employed by Ferdinando de' Medici, K Prince of Tuscany. Cristofori invented the piano at some point before 1700.^{[49] [l]} While the clavichord allowed expressive control of volume, with harder or louder key presses creating louder sound (and vice versa) and fairly sustained notes, it was as well repose for large performances. The harpsichord produced a sufficiently loud sound, but offered little expressive command over each note. Pressing a harpsichord key harder or softer had no effect on the instrument'due south loudness. The piano offered the best of both, combining loudness with dynamic control. Cristofori's great success was solving, with no prior example, the fundamental mechanical trouble of pianoforte blueprint: the hammer must strike the string, but not remain in contact with information technology (equally a tangent remains in contact with a clavichord string) because this would damp the audio. Moreover, the hammer must return to its rest position without bouncing violently, and it must be possible to repeat the same notation rapidly. Cristofori'south piano action was a model for the many approaches to piano actions that followed. Cristofori's early on instruments were much louder and had more sustain than the clavichord. Even though the piano was invented in 1700, the harpsichord and pipe organ connected to exist widely used in orchestra and bedroom music concerts until the end of the 1700s. Information technology took time for the new piano to gain in popularity. By 1800, though, the piano generally was used in place of the harpsichord (although pipe organ continued to be used in church music such equally Masses).

Classicism [edit]

From about 1790 onward, the Mozart-era piano underwent tremendous changes that led to the modern grade of the instrument. This revolution was in response to a preference by composers and pianists for a more powerful, sustained pianoforte audio, and fabricated possible past the ongoing Industrial Revolution with resources such as loftier-quality steel piano wire for strings, and precision casting for the production of iron frames. Over time, the tonal range of the piano was besides increased from the 5 octaves of Mozart'southward day to the seven-plus range found on modernistic pianos. Early technological progress owed much to the business firm of Broadwood. John Broadwood joined with another Scot, Robert Stodart, and a Dutchman, Americus Backers, to design a piano in the harpsichord case—the origin of the "grand". They achieved this in about 1777. They quickly gained a reputation for the splendour and powerful tone of their instruments, with Broadwood constructing ones that were progressively larger, louder, and more robustly constructed.

They sent pianos to both Joseph Haydn and Ludwig van Beethoven, and were the first firm to build pianos with a range of more five octaves: five octaves and a 5th (interval) during the 1790s, 6 octaves by 1810 (Beethoven used the actress notes in his later on works), and vii octaves by 1820. The Viennese makers similarly followed these trends; however the two schools used different pianoforte actions: Broadwoods were more robust, Viennese instruments were more sensitive.

Beethoven's instrumentation for orchestra added piccolo, contrabassoon, and trombones to the triumphal finale of his Symphony No. 5. A piccolo and a pair of trombones help evangelize storm and sunshine in the Sixth. Beethoven'south utilise of piccolo, contrabassoon, trombones, and untuned percussion in his Ninth Symphony expanded the sound of the orchestra.

Romanticism [edit]

During the Romantic music era (c. 1810 to 1900), 1 of the key means that new compositions became known to the public was past the sales of sheet music, which amateur music lovers would perform at abode on their piano or in chamber music groups, such equally cord quartets. Saxophones began to announced in some 19th-century orchestra scores. While appearing only as featured solo instruments in some works, for example Maurice Ravel's orchestration of Modest Mussorgsky'due south Pictures at an Exhibition and Sergei Rachmaninoff'due south Symphonic Dances, the saxophone is included in other works, such equally Ravel's Boléro, Sergei Prokofiev's Romeo and Juliet Suites i and two. The euphonium is featured in a few late Romantic and 20th-century works, unremarkably playing parts marked "tenor tuba", including Gustav Holst's The Planets, and Richard Strauss'south Ein Heldenleben. The Wagner tuba, a modified member of the horn family, appears in Richard Wagner'southward cycle Der Band des Nibelungen and several other works by Strauss, Béla Bartók, and others; it has a prominent role in Anton Bruckner'south Symphony No. seven in E Major.^[51] Cornets appear in Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky'south ballet Swan Lake, Claude Debussy's La Mer, and several orchestral works past Hector Berlioz.

The piano continued to undergo technological developments in the Romantic era, up until the 1860s. By the 1820s, the center of piano edifice innovation had shifted to Paris, where the Pleyel business firm manufactured pianos used past Frédéric Chopin and the Érard firm manufactured those used by Franz Liszt. In 1821, Sébastien Érard invented the double escapement activeness, which incorporated a repetition lever (also called the balancier) that permitted repeating a note even if the primal had non yet risen to its maximum vertical position. This facilitated rapid playing of repeated notes, a musical device exploited by Liszt. When the invention became public, as revised by Henri Herz, the double escapement action gradually became standard in one thousand pianos, and is even so incorporated into all thou pianos currently produced. Other improvements of the mechanism included the use of felt hammer coverings instead of layered leather or cotton wool. Felt, which was showtime introduced by Jean-Henri Pape in 1826, was a more consistent cloth, permitting wider dynamic ranges every bit hammer weights and string tension increased. The sostenuto pedal, invented in 1844 by Jean-Louis Boisselot and copied past the Steinway firm in 1874, allowed a wider range of effects.

Ane innovation that helped create the sound of the modernistic piano was the use of a strong fe frame. Likewise chosen the "plate", the iron frame sits atop the soundboard, and serves every bit the master bulwark against the force of cord tension that can exceed 20 tons in a mod grand. The single piece cast iron frame was patented in 1825 in Boston by Alpheus Babcock,^{[52] [ incomplete brusque citation ]} combining the metal hitch pin plate (1821, claimed by Broadwood on behalf of Samuel Hervé) and resisting bars (Thom and Allen, 1820, but also claimed by Broadwood and Érard). The increased structural integrity of the iron frame allowed the employ of thicker, tenser, and more numerous strings. In 1834, the Webster & Horsfal firm of Birmingham brought out a form of piano wire made from bandage steel; according to Dolge information technology was "so superior to the iron wire that the English language firm soon had a monopoly."^{[53] [ incomplete short citation ]}

Other important advances included changes to the mode the pianoforte is strung, such as the use of a "choir" of three strings rather than two for all just the lowest notes, and the implementation of an over-strung calibration, in which the strings are placed in 2 separate planes, each with its own bridge height. The mechanical action construction of the upright pianoforte was invented in London, England in 1826 by Robert Wornum, and upright models became the most popular model, likewise amplifying the audio.^[54]

20th- and 21st-century music [edit]

With 20th-century music, there was a vast increase in music listening, every bit the radio gained popularity and phonographs were used to replay and distribute music. The invention of sound recording and the ability to edit music gave ascension to new subgenre of classical music, including the acousmatic^[55] and Musique concrète schools of electronic limerick. Sound recording was also a major influence on the development of pop music genres, because it enabled recordings of songs and bands to be widely distributed. The introduction of the multitrack recording system had a major influence on rock music, because it could do much more tape a ring's performance. Using a multitrack system, a band and their music producer could overdub many layers of musical instrument tracks and vocals, creating new sounds that would non exist possible in a alive operation.

The 20th-century orchestra was far more flexible than its predecessors.^{[56] [ incomplete brusque commendation ]} In Beethoven'south and Felix Mendelssohn's time, the orchestra was composed of a fairly standard cadre of instruments which was very rarely modified. As time progressed, and equally the Romantic period saw changes in accepted modification with composers such as Berlioz and Mahler, the 20th century saw that instrumentation could practically be paw-picked past the composer. Saxophones were used in some 20th-century orchestra scores such as Vaughan Williams' Symphonies No. 6 and 9 and William Walton's Belshazzar'south Banquet, and many other works as a member of the orchestral ensemble. In the 2000s, the modern orchestra became standardized with the modern instrumentation that includes a string section, woodwinds, contumely instruments, percussion, piano, celeste, and even, for some 20th century or 21st century works, electric instruments such as electric guitar, electric bass and/or electronic instruments such as the Theremin or synthesizer.

Electric and electro-mechanical [edit]

Electric music technology refers to musical instruments and recording devices that apply electrical circuits, which are often combined with mechanical technologies. Examples of electric musical instruments include the electro-mechanical electric piano (invented in 1929), the electric guitar (invented in 1931), the electro-mechanical Hammond organ (developed in 1934) and the electric bass (invented in 1935). None of these electrical instruments produce a sound that is audible past the performer or audience in a performance setting unless they are connected to instrument amplifiers and loudspeaker cabinets, which fabricated them sound loud plenty for performers and the audition to hear. Amplifiers and loudspeakers are split from the instrument in the case of the electric guitar (which uses a guitar amplifier), electric bass (which uses a bass amplifier) and some electric organs (which utilise a Leslie speaker or similar cabinet) and electric pianos. Some electric organs and electric pianos include the amplifier and speaker cabinet within the master housing for the instrument.

Electric piano [edit]

An electric piano is an electrical musical instrument which produces sounds when a performer presses the keys of the piano-style musical keyboard. Pressing keys causes mechanical hammers to strike metal strings or tines, leading to vibrations which are converted into electrical signals by magnetic pickups, which are and then connected to an instrument amplifier and loudspeaker to brand a sound loud enough for the performer and audition to hear. Unlike a synthesizer, the electrical piano is non an electronic instrument. Instead, it is an electro-mechanical instrument. Some early on electric pianos used lengths of wire to produce the tone, like a traditional piano. Smaller electric pianos used short slivers of steel, metal tines or curt wires to produce the tone. The earliest electric pianos were invented in the late 1920s.

Electric guitar [edit]

A Kramer XKG-20 electric guitar circa 1980.

An electric guitar is a guitar that uses a pickup to convert the vibration of its strings into electrical impulses. The most common guitar pickup uses the principle of direct electromagnetic induction. The indicate generated by an electric guitar is besides weak to drive a loudspeaker, so it is amplified before being sent to a loudspeaker. The output of an electric guitar is an electric betoken, and the signal can easily be altered by electronic circuits to add together "color" to the sound. Often the bespeak is modified using electronic furnishings such every bit reverb and distortion. Invented in 1931, the electric guitar became a necessity as jazz guitarists sought to amplify their audio in the big band format.

Hammond organ [edit]

A Hammond C-3 electric organ.

The Hammond organ is an electric organ, invented by Laurens Hammond and John Thou. Hanert^[57] and outset manufactured in 1935. Diverse models have been produced, most of which use sliding drawbars to create a variety of sounds. Until 1975, Hammond organs generated sound by creating an electric current from rotating a metallic tonewheel well-nigh an electromagnetic pickup. Around ii 1000000 Hammond organs have been manufactured, and it has been described as one of the nearly successful organs. The organ is commonly used with, and associated with, the Leslie speaker. The organ was originally marketed and sold by the Hammond Organ Visitor to churches equally a lower-price alternative to the wind-driven pipe organ, or instead of a piano. It rapidly became popular with professional jazz bandleaders, who institute that the room-filling audio of a Hammond organ could form small bands such as organ trios which were less plush than paying an entire big band.

Electrical bass [edit]

The electric bass (or bass guitar) was invented in the 1930s, simply it did not become commercially successful or widely used until the 1950s. It is a stringed instrument played primarily with the fingers or thumb, by plucking, slapping, popping, strumming, tapping, thumping, or picking with a plectrum, oft known equally a pick. The bass guitar is similar in appearance and structure to an electrical guitar, but with a longer neck and scale length, and 4 to six strings or courses. The electric bass unremarkably uses metal strings and an electromagnetic pickup which senses the vibrations in the strings. Similar the electrical guitar, the bass guitar is plugged into an amplifier and speaker for live performances.

Electronic or digital [edit]

Electronic or digital music engineering is any device, such as a computer, an electronic effects unit or software, that is used by a musician or composer to help brand or perform music.^[ii] The term usually refers to the utilize of electronic devices, computer hardware and computer software that is used in the functioning, playback, recording, composition, sound recording and reproduction, mixing, analysis and editing of music. Electronic or digital music engineering is continued to both artistic and technological creativity. Musicians and music engineering experts are constantly striving to devise new forms of expression through music, and they are physically creating new devices and software to enable them to do and so. Although in the 2010s, the term is virtually commonly used in reference to modern electronic devices and computer software such as digital audio workstations and Pro Tools digital sound recording software, electronic and digital musical technologies have precursors in the electric music technologies of the early 20th century, such as the electromechanical Hammond organ, which was invented in 1929. In the 2010s, the ontological range of music technology has profoundly increased, and it may now exist electronic, digital, software-based or indeed even purely conceptual.

An early Minimoog synthesizer by R.A. Moog Inc. from 1970.

A synthesizer is an electronic musical instrument that generates electrical signals that are converted to sound through instrument amplifiers and loudspeakers or headphones. Synthesizers may either imitate existing sounds (instruments, vocal, natural sounds, etc.), or generate new electronic timbres or sounds that did not exist before. They are often played with an electronic musical keyboard, but they tin be controlled via a multifariousness of other input devices, including music sequencers, instrument controllers, fingerboards, guitar synthesizers, wind controllers, and electronic drums. Synthesizers without congenital-in controllers are often called sound modules, and are controlled using a controller device.

References [edit]

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Sources [edit]

• Bush, Douglas Earl; Kassel, Richard, eds. (2006). The Organ: An Encyclopedia. Psychology Printing. ISBN978-0-415-94174-7.
• Farmer, Henry George (1988). Historical facts for the Arabian Musical Influence. Ayer Publishing. ISBN0-405-08496-X. OCLC 220811631.
• Ginsberg-Klar, Maria East. (February 1981). "The Archaeology of Musical Instruments in Germany during the Roman Menstruation". Earth Archaeology. 12 (three, Archaeology and Musical Instruments): 313–320. doi:10.1080/00438243.1981.9979806. JSTOR 124243.
• Kartomi, Margaret J. (1990). On Concepts and Classifications of Musical Instruments. University of Chicago Press. ISBN0-226-42548-7.
• Ulrich, Homer; Pisk, Paul Amadeus (1963). A History of Music and Musical Manner. Harcourt, Brace & World. ISBN9780155377202.
• Werner, Eric (1959). The Sacred Bridge: The Interdependence of Liturgy and Music in Synagogue and Church building During the First Millennium. London; New York: Dobson; Columbia University Printing.

Farther reading [edit]

• Campbell, Murray; Greated, Clive; Myers, Arnold. Musical Instruments . New York: Oxford Academy Press.
• Cunningham, Mark (1998). Expert Vibrations: a History of Record Production. London: Sanctuary Publishing Limited.
• Edmondson, Jacquelin. Music In American Life.
• Holmes, Thom (2008). Electronic and Experimental Music. New York: Routledge.
• Kettlewell, Ben (2002). Electronic Music Pioneers. United states: Pro Music Press.
• Taylor, Timothy (2001). Strange Sounds . New York: Routledge.
• Weir, William. "How the Drum Automobile Changed Popular Music". Slate . Retrieved December 9, 2015.
• "An Audio Timeline". Sound Engineering Society . Retrieved December viii, 2015.

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Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music_technology

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